Reactivating Federal Assault Weapons Ban Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Reactivating Federal Assault Weapons Ban - Essay Example One of the most important reasons as to why guns should be controlled is the regional gangs in the streets of U.S. Since the expiry of federal assault weapons act in 2004, it became easy for citizens to own guns. It also created legal loopholes for weapon merchants to sell guns to both deserving citizens and criminals as well. This created the biggest loophole in American safety since guns became easily accessible to regional gangs as well. Gangs have since then grown exponentially and use of guns become a common phenomenon. Murder, homicide, juvenile, burglary, and criminal shootings have soared. Although proponents of gun use argue that gangs will still have access to guns whether the act is in use or not, it is evident that when strict gun control laws are in place manufacture, supply and use considerably goes down (Valdez, 2003). The attack on government officials is on the rise. Licensing of guns makes it possible for both good and bad people to carry guns to places that threaten the safety of government officials. Political, governmental and leadership ideologies have always been a source of conflict. Such conflicts need to be solved in an amicable way using official channels. However, easy accessibility to guns has made it possible for groups of people who have conflicting ideologies with the leadership to pose a threat to the leadership. Indeed the history of America contains incidents of assassinations of some of the best American presidents. Founders of America created an excellent leadership infrastructure meant to protect America against factions. However, it is now evident that such freedom against factions is going to drains through easy accessibility of guns.

Financial Institutions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Financial Institutions - Essay Example As financial institution involves services of many people, it is hard to manage everything appropriately. Sometimes, due to some human errors, wrong data is stored in the records which then create problems for the managers and regulators of the institutions. Due to the increasing use of computer and technology, data is sometimes hacked or corrupted which then results in wrong approximation of assets and capital. Unfortunately, financial institutions also face troubles due to the disloyalty of their employees. In some cases, these employees reveal the private data of the institutions or get involved in stealing or bribery. Due to the lack of skills, sometimes employees make mistakes in even entering the details of the customer in the records, which then create huge problems for the institution (Operational Risk, 2008). Financial institutions are amongst the most regulated sectors in the world. They operate in an extremely regulated environment and follows laws and regulations very strongly. The reasons behind regulating financial institutions are: The operations of financial institution involve money transactions and valuable possessions of its clients and thus they need to be highly protected. The regulators of financial institution ensure its customers for the security of their belongings as any harm to these things would not only result in the financial loss of the institution but would also adversely affect its image in the world market. As technology is improving day by day, regulators of financial institutions need to monitor it closely so that they would be able to adopt it accordingly and become the trend setters. This can have a positive impact on their business and would also help in efficient storage of data and information. Financial institutions require very efficient ways of storing data as the operations of financial institutions rely mainly on the information of the

Achievements and Complaints of India Today Group Essay Example for Free

Achievements and Complaints of India Today Group Essay Operating for 36 years now, the company has consistently maintained incomparable goodwill and rapport in the market. The India Today Group continues to be the best and has steadily bagged major awards and notched up achievements over the years, some of which are: * Its news channel Aaj Tak won the Indian Telly Award for Best Hindi News Channel for the 10th consecutive year in 2010. * The Editor-in-Chief of Aaj Tak, Prabhu Chawla, won the Best News and Current Affairs Anchor Award at the Indian Telly Awards 2009. * The India Today Group publishes the Cosmopolitan magazine in India and has been featuring awards for Fun and Fearless Male and Female of the Year since 2002. * Cosmopolitan also showcases awards for the Best Bachelor of the Year. * Cosmopolitan further promoted the Practice Safe Sun campaign that fights against skin cancer * The India Today Group organizes several events like the India Today Conclave and ACUMEN, which deals with some of the major issues and businesses in the country. * The Vasant Valley School was started by the India Today Group to encourage education for all in the country. CONTROVERSIES AND COMPLAINTS In the recorded conversations between Nira Radia and prominent figures, referred to as the Radia Tapes, several prominent figures are heard in conversation with Radia amongst them were Prabhu Chawla, editor of India Today magazine and Shankar Aiyar, then with India Today Group . ONLINE CHEATING AND SCAM BY BAGITTODAY an INDIA TODAY Group: The company, bagittoday,an india today group company,known in ecommrce as living media india ltd cheated many people by not giving them promised service, gifts and evn asking the people for account nos with passwords . They realise payments through credit card/Online banking and do not send the material. October 14 was a sad day for Union Law Minister Salman Khurshid and the India Today group, which owns a number of print journals and TV channels, says B Raman A non-governmental humanitarian trust for assisting physically disadvantaged people with which Khurshids wife Louise is reportedly associated has been the target of allegations of wrongful use of funds amounting to approximately Rs 80 lakh sanctioned by the government for humanitarian relief. A Hindi TV channel of the India Today group and the India Against Corruption group headed by Arvind Kejriwal, a non-governmental activist, have been spearheading the campaign against Khurshid on these allegations against the humanitarian trust. The two campaigns have been trying to project themselves as separate from each other without any orchestrated co-ordination, but an undeclared, but evident convergence of objective between the two is discernible to any objective observer. That objective is to exploit the suspected misuse of the funds to cause public discomfiture to Khurshid.

Harmful Traditions in Nigerian Society

Harmful Traditions in Nigerian Society UKWAMEDUA LAWRETTA IFUNANYA WHAT IS META COGNITION IN SOCIAL STUDIES? USING 3 EXAMPLES EXPLAIN THE SOCIAL STUDIES PROBLEM SOLVING PROPCESSES Meta cognition is the higher order thinking which involve active control over thinking processes involved in learning. It refers to the process by which people’s knowledge controls their thinking and learning activities (It involves â€Å"thinking about thinking†). It can also be defined as thinking about one’s thinking i.e. it involves the process of stepping back to see what you are doing, as if you were someone else observing it. Meta cognitive activities helps people especially students to reflect on what they know, care about and are able to develop an awareness of themselves, and it gives them opportunity to reflect on their learning because it is often difficult for them to realize what they are doing. Meta cognition is also the ability to manage one’s own thinking processes. Problem solving refers to the process by which difficult issues are tackled and solved whereby doing this the causes, solution and prevention to the problems are known. Inn problem solving, we need to use THE RARE CONCEPT as a guide for us to know what we are doing. For instance, the present fuel scarcity; the government need to think of what they can RAISE up in order for the productivity of petrol to be constant; the need to think about what they can ADD in order for the refineries to be in good conditions and work effectively which can make life easier; they also need to think of what they can REDUCE i.e. those things that are not relevant to the production of fuel, they need to think of those factors that leads to time wasting and finally they need to think of what to ELIMINATE in terms of bad habits, the bad habit of hoarding fuel for personal use or the habit of using the resources meant for the production of fuel. If all these factors are put in place, the problem of fuel scarcity will be averted. LIST AND EXPLAIN WITH EXAMPLES 5 NEGATIVE BEHAVIOUR AND 5 HARMFUL TRADITIONAL PRATICES THAT NEED TO BE CHANGED IN THE PRESENT DAY NIGERIAN SOCIETY 5 NEGATIVE BEHAVIOUR ARE: CULTISM: Cultism has to do with belonging to a secret cult and practicing cult activities which involves performing rituals, killing, fighting, strange oath talking, rape, etc. Cultism is a negative behavior which is rampant in tertiary institutions today, they usually attack, intimidate and kill both lecturers and students, destroy school property. Members are mainly truants that do not take their education seriously, thereby performing poorly and expecting to pass by intimidating lecturers and students. Therefore, in order for us to be alive, productive and useful in life, we should not indulge or belong to secret cults. DISREGARD FOR TIME: This is another negative behavior of our people. Nigerians do not keep to time. They disregard time. No matter how important a program, meeting or event is. For instance, if a meeting is scheduled for 9.00am, by 10:00am or 10:30am, the meeting may not have started because they believe in their so-called â€Å"African Time†. This is bad because lateness leads to inefficiency in our activities. DRUG TRAFFICKING: This is a globally illicit trade involving the cultivation, manufacture, distribution and sale of substances which are subject to prohibition. Drug traffickers are many in Nigeria and many of them peddle hard drugs like cocaine, heroin and marijuana. These drugs contribute to many crimes because as traffickers increase in numbers, users and abusers also increase. Many of our youths have been made useless and some wasted as a result of drug trafficking. ETHNICISM OR TRIBALISM-DISCRIMINATION AMONG ETHNIC GROUPS: Our country, Nigeria is made up of many ethnic groups and these ethnic groups have different languages but all these ethnic groups makeup the nation called Nigeria. Nigeria adopted a common language known as English from her colonial master to be used as a common language by all the ethnic groups as one country. The three major tribes which are Igbo, Yoruba and Hausa, discriminate in the offer of employment, appointment, admission, distribution of resources, governance (who produces the president). Some believe they are born-to-rule and be in power all y=the time, that’s why they choose and rotate leadership among families, the same tribe and religion. EXAMINATION MALPRATICES: This is seen in the behavior of all categories of students (primary school to tertiary institutions). There are cases where primary school pupils are given assistances in form of cheating to pass their examinations e.g. common entrance, by their teachers due to the money paid by their parents. Secondary school students do not register for external examinations in most public schools, instead, they register with huge sums of money in special centers. These centers are known as ‘miracles centers’ where examinations are made easy; parents, principals or proprietors of schools, invigilators and officers of examination bodies collide and perpetrate the crime for money and this has now become a culture in our society. 5 HARMFUL TRADITIONAL PRATICES ARE: a. MALTREATMENT OF WIDOWS: In most communities in Nigeria, widows are given harsh treatment and conditions. When a woman lose her husband, she may be made to cut her hair, put on white cloth or black cloth for a year after the death of her husband, made to remain indoors and should not visit friends or go to market for some months. She may be forced to drink water used in bathing the dead body of her husband. Besides, the property of the husband i.e. land etc. is sometimes taken away from the widow by relations of the dead husband leaving the widow and her children to suffer. Sometimes, they are forced out of their husband’s house but all these depends on the custom and community in place. b. PREFERENCE FOR MALE CHILDREN: In the olden days, female children were not recognized because they believed training her in school was a waste because she will still have to end up in the kitchen, so only male children were given preference and recognition in the family. Discrimination in training of children in our communities is harmful, so therefore equal education should be given to both sexes (male or female). c. CIRCUMCISION: This refers to the removal of some parts of the body organ either male or female circumcision is practiced in most communities of their world but female circumcision is common. Some part of the female genital organ removed, is believed to be the most sensitive and sensational part of female sexual organ and that by circumcision females sexuality will brought under control. This practice brings about a lot of health problems e.g. fibrosis, Hiv/Aids due to the instruments involved in the act. d. SLAVERY: This is the illegal trade of human beings for the purpose of commercial, sexual exploitation or forced labour. It is also the transportation, transfer, harboring or receipt of persons by means of threat or use of force or deception in order to receive payment or benefit. Slavery also involves deals with the transportation of women, men or children. e. INFANT BETROTHAL AND EARLY MARRIAGE: In some communities, marriage formalities are fulfilled for the couple before their maturity, whereby parents betroth their female children to older men or to their friends either for money or in order to achieve a goal. This early marriage leads to poor sexual and reproductive health of the victim, in some cases leads to the lickage of vagina due to child bearing, as well as depriving the girl the joy of youth or going further in her education. This affects the girl socially, psychologically, physically and emotionally. WHAT ARE VALUES IN SOCIAL STUDIES? Values are attitudes or beliefs which people should do, the standards they should live by, or the things they should endorse or maintain. Values are the principles we hold as important and worthwhile and which possess quality or merit. Values helps to direct our behavior and relationship with other people. Right values we should possess are as follows: Having belief in hard work. Performing selfless service in our community. Showing commitment towards the security of life and property of the people and society. Being punctual at all times. Honesty or truthfulness. Having patience. Co-operation and willingness to share with others. Being dedicated to work etc. EXPLAIN WITH 5 EXAMPLES WHAT THE RIGHT ATTITUDE TO WORK MEANS INTERGRITY: This is the quality of being honest and having good moral principles and uprightness. Having integrity means doing the right thing in a reliable way. It’s a personality trait everyone should have, it literally means having â€Å"wholeness of character†, being unbiased always i.e. always standing by the truth. DELIGENCE: This means careful and persistent work or effort. It is determination and perseverance when doing something; it is also the act of being hardworking in order to achieve a certain goal or goals. It involves being meticulous in duties, showing care and steady effort in discharging our duties in our life activities. PUNCTUALITY: This is the act of arriving or doing something at the expected or planes time. This also means attending to any duty assigned to us to do at the right or appropriate time. COMMITMENT AND DEDICATION: This is showing interest and good sense, responsibility in carrying out our duties. This is about having passion for the work we do and we are committed to our work, it brings success. It also means committing ourselves to something special. For instance, Mandela was committed and dedicated in bringing his country justice and democracy, he had great passion for what is right. REGULARITY: This involves being in our place of work always and doing our work as supposed. This involves always in order and all constant. EXPLAIN WITH 5 EXAMPLES OF PROMOTING POSITIVE BEHAVIOUR IN OUR SOCIEETY. EDUCATION: Educating people about positive behavior and making them know the benefits of behaving right. Also through public enlightenment which have to do with the public aware of the dangers associated with negative behavior. PUNISHMENT: This is using sanctions and punishments to discourage negative behaviors in order for them to know that negative behavior is bad. ENFORCEMENT OF LAWS: The government should make strict laws against negative behaviors and make sure the laws are enforced tom the letter i.e. enforced on anyone going against the law. REWARDS: Rewards should be given to people who portray positive behavior in order to encourage them and serve as motivation. EMPHASIS ON GOOD MORALS: Lecture on good morals should be made in order to let people have discipline and abstain from negative behaviors. EXAMINE CRITICALLY THE CONCEPT OF CULTURAL PATTERNS. Culture is the way of life of people. It is a set of people grouped together having common accessories (linage) or parenthood; it includes the totality of people’s beliefs, their modes of worship, their occupation, ways of thinking etc. Culture varies from place to place and it is passed down from generation to another through learning. It grows and changes with time and through contact with people from outside our own groups. In Nigeria we have over 370 ethnic groups of which the three major and largest are the Hausa-Fulani, Igbo and Yoruba, and these people have different culture, for instance, the culture of the Yoruba’s is different from that of the Hausas and Igbo culture is different from those of the Hausas and Yoruba’s. Examples of the various cultural patterns are language, music, religion, art and craft, food, trading, occupation, traditions, architecture etc. EXPLAIN WITH EXAMPLES THE NIGERIAN CULTURAL PATTERNS DRESSING: Among the different ethnic groups in Nigeria, their dressing is also a common factor. For instance, a Yoruba man is known for wearing agbada and Abeti-Aja Cap, while an Igbo man is known for wearing awka-ochie and a red cap. They dress differently because of their tribes and culture. MUSIC: Different ethnic groups have different music they listen to. This songs are sometimes in their different languages or traditions. For instance, an igbo music and meaning is different from that of an Ijaw man or that of an Hausa man. There are different music have different meanings to them and they appreciate it according to their traditions or culture. LANGUAGE: in Nigeria different ethnic groups speaks different languages. For example, A Yoruba man calls plate Abo while an Igbo man calls plate Efere, this is because they are from different tribes and the way they think and view the world is determined by their cultural language differences. FOOD: The food of ethnic groups are different. This ethnic groups enjoys different delicacies according to their culture or tradition. For instance, Yoruba enjoys Amala and Ewedu While Igbos enjoys Fufu/pounded yam with Egusi or oha soup, likewise other ethnic groups have their own special delicacies. RELIGION: Religion is the belief in of people, therefore, different ethnic groups have their own different beliefs and religions. For instance, some Yoruba religion is Christianity while some are Muslims likewise Hausa are mainly Muslims. They have different religions because of what they believe to be sacred and of great value and moral standard. MYTHOLOGY: Different ethnic groups originated from different places and source. For instance, the Yoruba came from ododuwa in ile-ife while the Igbos also came from another source. This different historical backgrounds shows the different in their way of life and traditions. MARRIAGE: Different ethnic groups have different ways of marriage process and system. For instance, the traditions and ways a Yoruba person will get married is different from the way an Igbo person will get married. They have specific traditions which they must follow when performing marriage rites. CITING APPROPRIATE EXAMPLES, EXAMIN 5 COMMON TERMS IN CULTURE. LEVEL OF POLITICAL INTEGRATION: This refers to the general types of political systems used to organize and manage societies. As a society increases in population size and territory, it must develop new political solutions to keep or avoid them from splitting apart. CHIEF-DOM: This is when a society has more or less permanent political leader i.e. a chief but has no division of governing tasks into specific categories. The chief provides direction and authority for the society as a whole. KINDRED: This is a family group bound together by their kinship ties to one person i.e. relationships between individuals who are commonly thought of as having family ties. An individual’s kindred consists of all the people whom are related to him or her biologically and sometimes spouses. DIFFUSION: This is the movement of cultural traits and ideas from one society or ethnic group to another. While the form of a trait may be transmitted to another society, the meaning may not be used. For instance, Chinese foods are seen as normal delicacies in china but are seen as special foods in Nigeria. ACCULTURATION: This is defined as the process by which a culture is transformed due to the massive adoption of cultural traits from another society. This is when particular culture is changed from the different one it has. It can be seen as an individual moving to a new society and adopting their culture. WHAT IS MEANT BY SOCIAL INTERACTIONS IN INDIGENIOUS SOCIETIES? Social interaction can be defined as the process by which we act, relate and react to people around us. It is also those acts, actions or practices of two or more people mutually oriented towards each other, i.e. any behavior that tries to affect or take account of each other’s experiences or intentions. It includes those act people perform towards each other and the response they give in return. For instance, it is the way an ethnic group relates with another ethnic group. In relating with people, we must know their do’s and don’ts I.e. respecting them knowing what they like and do not like. In other words, parties in social interaction must be aware of each other’s self in mind. Social interaction can involve smiling, talking, winking, debating, negotiating; they can also be active or passive, brief or long-lived, organized, unorganized or disorganized, direct or indirect, shallow or intense etc. FIVE FACTORS THAT PROMOTE SOCIAL INTERACTIONS IN THE INDIGENIOUS SOCIETIES INTER-MARRIAGE: When people marry from different tribe and culture, they tend to know more about each other and then they respect and interact with themselves effectively. It enables them meet people and express themselves without segregation. AGE GRADE: When people belong to the same age grade, it helps makes them free and allows them to interact with one another. For instance, children when playing with each other, interact and mingle up with themselves irrespective of their different families and tribe. It gives them a sense of belonging in sharing things because of their age grade. FAMILY: Members of family who experience the security of other family members and have strong attachment to them, are better able to reach out to relate with others. Family members use this relationship as a support to venture out and explore their environment. They are able to use the image of each of them when interacting with others. MUSIC: When people listen to songs together irrespective of the language used, they interact well. For instance, at an occasion where a song is played, people of different tribes can just fall in love with the particular song and everyone will dance and sing to it. The song here has brought about love and enjoyment in their mist and it helps them interact with one another. OCCUPATION: When people of different skill meet just with the sole aim to work and achieve a certain goal, it builds their abilities and interaction among them. People have the chance to learn more from each other and by doing so their friendship and interaction increases. It helps them in understanding each other better and also in building of the society.

Antigone: Hero Or Fool? Essay -- Greek tragic hero

In Greek literature, a tragic hero is based upon an individual having several of the following qualities: having a high social position in society; not being overly good or bad; being persistant or stubborn in their actions; having a single flaw that brings about their own death and the death of others; and obtaining pity from the audience. Antigone was a prime example of a Greek tragic hero. Antigone, being the daughter of Oedipus, obtained a high social standing in Thebes. Prior to his self-exile from Thebes, Oedipus was the city's king. Because of her high standing in society, Antigone was capable of great suffering, in that she had a reputation and a vast amount of respect to lose. Antigone's good side is demonstrated by her insistance on respecting her brother Polyneices' right to be buried in the religious tradition of Greece. The Greeks believed that it was of most importance to bury a person who died in battle so that their soul may continue on in the after life. Antigone is willing to risk her own life so that Polyneices can have to proper burial that she so strongly feels he deserved; "but I will bury him: and if I must die, I say that this crime is holy: I shall lie down with him in death, and I shall be dear to him as he to me." (Prologue, line 57-59) Having a fatal flaw is one of the characteristics of a Greek tragic hero. Antigon...

Majoring in Music :: Education Musical Singing School Essays Papers

Majoring in Music Music has always been an important part of my life. Upon entering the fifth grade, my parents bought me a flute, at my insistence. After moderate success playing the flute, I saw greener grass on the other side of the musical fence. Singing just had to be easier than making music with a long metal pipe. My perception and reality did not exactly match. Singing has its own subtleties and complexities which are not readily apparent to the casual observer. Abandoning the flute for singing, I began taking voice lessons in the tenth grade. My voice teacher was very experienced and encouraged me to pursue my interest in music beyond high school. After much deliberation, I decided to major in voice during college. This path would be fraught with unforeseen difficulties and exciting challenges. After announcing my decision to a number of friends and acquaintances, I began to encounter not a few misconceptions about the study of music. Many people readily expressed their uninformed opinion that music (particularly vocal performance) was an easy college major for anyone with a modicum of talent: â€Å"Just open your mouth and let the music pour out.† Some showed their ignorance by commenting that music majors had both light and easy course loads. There are even some people who refuse to acknowledge that music is a serious academic discipline. They believe music is a refuge for slackers who do not want to tackle the really difficult courses. Others have insinuated that music majors choose a career in music by default (i.e., because they could not think of anything better to study). Of course, none of these perceptions are true. Two short months studying music on the college level has exploded these misconceptions. The study of music is a rigorous academic discipline which only gets more difficult as one progresses further into the curriculum. While our professors are understanding and helpful, we certainly are not coddled. Music majors quickly learn that hard work and long hours is the price of success in the world of music. The subject matter demands dedication and discipline. Music majors do have some respite from the demands of our discipline. For voice majors, there is choir. Choir provides an opportunity to learn in a more passive manner. The choir director leads the members of the choir toward the desired goal – the mastery of the piece of music to be performed. While choir members must be attentive and receptive, the burden is primarily carried by the director.

Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy Essay

Abstract Human behavior can be explained by a variety of biological, psychosocial, and environmental factors interacting on a person over time. The values, beliefs, and goals that determine the behaviors one engages in are developed through cognitive processes unique to each individual as a result of the interplay between previous learning and the aforementioned factors. When considered together, the Model of Human Occupation and Cognitive Behavioral Therapy give an explanation for this view of human behavior. These frames of reference are reviewed in regards to their conceptions of behavior, dysfunction, treatment approach, and their relevance to occupational therapy. Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy and the Model of Human Occupation Man is an open system that can change and develop through interaction with the environment. Behavior is an expression of psychosocial, biological, and environmental factors interacting within the system. Biological factors may predispose someone to a certain disease or dysfunction which may be expressed in the presence of stress. Factors such as family structure, work environment, and culture can contribute to positive or negative experiences from which an individual learns. There is an innate drive within humans for self-efficacy; the ultimate goal is to master one’s environment. A person’s values, beliefs, and goals determine the behaviors one engages in to accomplish the ultimate goal of environmental mastery. These values, beliefs, and goals are developed through cognitive processes unique to each individual and are a result of the interplay between previous learning and psychosocial, biological, and environmental factors throughout life. Because each person’s cognitive processes are unique, experiences are subjectively interpreted in different ways. People react in context with their desire for environmental mastery and their personal beliefs and values learned throughout life. When considered together, the Model of Human Occupation and Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy frame of reference give an explanation of behavior that includes psychosocial, biological and environmental factors  while maintaining the importance of cognition. The purpose of this paper is to review how Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy and the Model of Human Occupation explain behavior, dysfunction, treatment approach, and their relevance to occupational therapy. Theory Kielhofner and Burke’s Model of Human Occupation (MOHO) (1980) believes that humans have an innate drive for exploration and mastery of their respective environments. Man interacts with the environment though engagement in occupation. Occupations are the means through which an individual pursues their goals. Within this model, occupations are defined as complex, organized groups of goal-oriented behaviors (Bruce & Borg, 1993). One’s chosen actions and occupations are a meaningful reflection of personal beliefs and goals for environmental mastery. Mastery is the extent to which an individual perceives the result of their behavior as effective, efficient, and satisfying (Stein & Cutler, 1998). MOHO postulates an open systems theory in regards to human behavior. â€Å"An open system is an organized complex of subsystems that are in dynamic interaction. The system is, in turn, in dynamic interaction with its environment. All parts are maintained and transformed through this dynamic interaction† (Kielhofner & Burke, 1980, p. 573). The open system interacts with the environment through a process of input, throughput, output, and feedback. Input is information from the environment; throughput is the processing of input by the internal cognitive structures of a human; output is the mental, physical, and social aspects of behavior; and feedback is information from the environment about the consequences of a behavior (1980). The open system can be divided into a hierarchical arrangement of three subsystems that are responsible for behavior. The highest level governing over behavior is volition. This is the underlying, energizing component behind behavior responsible for which one will be chosen and initiated. Volition is determined by one’s innate drive to master his/her environment, as well as his/her beliefs surrounding a behavior (Bruce & Borg, 1993).  Personal causation, values, and interests comprise volition. Personal causation is the motivation and expectations surrounding a behavior. It incorporates past successes and failures to form images of self-efficacy. Values represent the importance of certain behaviors to an individual. Interests are determined by the pleasure one derives from engaging in a specific occupation (Kielhofner & Burke, 1980). Volition is believed to govern over the lower subsystems of the hierarchy (Kielhofner & Burke, 1980). The middle subsystem is defined as habituation. Habituation is responsible for organizing behavior into roles, patterns, and routines. Roles reflect a group of behaviors with which an individual may have certain expectations of performance. The individual’s beliefs and society influence these expectations. Roles contribute to self-identity and influence behavior. This organization allows for certain behaviors to be performed automatically and adapted to various environments. Performance, the lowest subsystem within the hierarchy, consists of the skills necessary for producing behavior. These include perceptual-motor processing skills, cognition, and communication. The function of the performance subsystem is to produce behaviors called upon by volition and habituation, which are located higher in the hierarchy of the human system (Bruce & Borg, 1993). MOHO’s governing subsystem, volition, can be compared to the concept of cognition described by the Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy frame of reference. Through this comparison, Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT) provides an explanation for the acquisition and structure of volitional system. The major theorists under CBT believe that cognitive structures such as beliefs, thinking styles, problem-solving styles, and coping styles as well as the environment are the determinants of behavior (Johnston, 1987). The above structures are represented by a schema, which is developed through reactions to social, environmental, and genetic influences over time. A schema is defined as the global cognitive processes associated with past experience (Bootzin, 1988). Schema can be influenced by positive and negative experiences, such as culture, family structure, and social roles. Another assumption of CBT is that people are capable of guiding the course of their lives via their thoughts. Ellis, as cited in Barris, Kielhofner, and Watts (1988), believes that â€Å"humans are responsible for their emotions and behavior, as having the potential to create personal meaning, and as behaving in ways influenced by thought processes rather than determined by unconscious forces† (p. 92). The concept of personal responsibility for behavior is also incorporated into MOHO through the volitional system. This subsystem is responsible for choices regarding behavior. According to CBT theorists, the cognitive events responsible for behavior are learned. Albert Bandura’s theory of social learning explains how learning impacts cognition and behavior. Learning is seen as an outcome of the interaction between behavior, person, and environment. People choose behaviors based on expectancy, or what they anticipate will happen if a behavior is performed. Therefore, individuals are more likely to perform a specific behavior if they believe the results will lead to something they want (Bruce & Borg, 1993). Personal causation, a component of volition, is responsible for expectancy and links Bandura’s theory to MOHO. Reinforcement influences whether behaviors are performed. These can be external, vicarious or self-produced. External reinforcement comes from the environment in many forms, including social praise/acceptance, rewards, privileges or penalties. Vicarious reinforcement is the individual’s values and previously learned images of success or failure associated with a particular behavior. Self-produced reinforcement involves the interpretation of a behavior as satisfying or unsatisfying. Personal satisfaction is seen as the best reinforcement for behavior (1993). Thus, behavior is driven by the goal of self-efficacy, an idea shared by MOHO. This feeling of satisfaction after occupational performance develops into a sense of effectiveness. Satisfaction alters CBT’s cognition and MOHO’s volitional subsystem, making it more likely for a behavior to occur again. Bandura explains that personal experience, modeling, and observational learning are ways behaviors are acquired. Cognition plays a major role in the selection of behaviors because people will repeat behaviors they believe will have positive outcomes (Cole, 1998). Cognitive appraisal is the internal processing, which occurs between the stimulus and response. Behaviors are elicited after this cognitive appraisal  occurs. One’s beliefs and values are derived from the cognitive appraisal of events over time (Bootzin, 1988). The process of cognitive appraisal is synonomous with MOHO’s concept of throughput, a process that also elicits behaviors. Some behaviors performed daily over time do not require extensive cognitive appraisal. Aaron Beck describes these behaviors as automatic thoughts (Bruce & Borg, 1993). People do not recognize the problem-solving and internal cognition associated with these automatic thoughts. Automatic thoughts are closely related to the habituation subsystem in MOHO. Behavior Change Within the human system, each subsystem and the environment are interdependent. A disturbance in functioning in one of the subsystems will affect all the subsystems requiring the person to adapt to the resultant changes. The system changes throughout a lifetime to respond to the changing demands and expectations of the environment (Kielhofner & Burke, 1980). Restructuring or restoration of any of the internal subsystems as well as the environment can mediate behavior change. The process of feedback informs the system of the consequences of behavior. During feedback, actual performance is compared to the expected outcome, which helps the system adjust its performance and restructure the internal hierarchy. Feedback also shapes self-images created by the personal causation component (1980). Treatment can target behavior change directly at the volitional level by changing the cognitive structures associated with personal causation, values, and interests thereby affecting the lower level s of the system. Other levels may be impacted through environmental modification or increasing occupational performance by strengthening performance components or improving habits. Improving performance will alter one’s perception of the effectiveness of a behavior, thereby changing volition (Bruce & Borg, 1993). In the healthy, well functioning individual, the volitional level governs behavior. Comparisons could be made between MOHO and CBT over the role volition and cognition play in the acquisition and determination of behavior. CBT’s central tenet states that behavior change occurs only when  the beliefs surrounding the behavior are altered. Similarly, MOHO’s construct of personal causation represents the beliefs surrounding a behavior. Cognition allows man to regulate his behavior. Behaviors are determined by one’s expectations of the outcome and efficacy of a behavior, therefore the thoughts behind expectations must change for behavior to change. According to Bandura, self-produced reinforcement is the most effective way to change expectancy. This requires observational learning or participation in an activity, in which the consequences of behavior are perceived to be successful, thus changing one’s expectations about the effectiveness of that behavior. Oth er CBT theorists, such as Beck and Ellis believe people can be taught to view the world in a more accurate way, which alters behavior. This approach targets changes in behavior through the alteration of irrational thinking patterns. This involves evaluation of the validity of thoughts; formulation of new, more rational thoughts; and practice of the new thinking styles (Bruce & Borg, 1993). Depression According to MOHO, when considering a dysfunction such as depression, the individual must be viewed holistically to determine where in the open system a breakdown has occurred. Because the subsystems are interdependent, the depressed feelings may be caused by a disturbance in any of the subsystems or the environment. This disturbance will subsequently affect engagement in occupation. Disruptions of occupational performance due to biological dysfunction, harsh environmental circumstances, or a negative schema are possible explanations for depression according to this frame of reference. Unrealistic expectations or imbalance of roles within the habituation system may also lead to dysfunction (Kielhofner & Burke, 1980). The factors mentioned above lead to disturbance in occupational behavior causing the feelings of depression and incompetence. For example, a physical disability may alter a client’s performance of important occupations, thereby affecting their expectations, belief s, habits, and roles surrounding the behavior. If the client perceives the performance as negative, motivation regarding the behavior will decrease, interests will change and a negative self-image may occur within the volitional system. An eclectic approach to treatment is required due to the many factors influencing behavior (Miller, et al, 1988). It may be appropriate to concentrate on negative beliefs within the volitional system, or on a lower subsystem that is disrupted, causing the negative feelings to occur. Environmental modification or improvement in the performance or habituation subsystems may help bring forth changes in volition by improving expectancy. It is necessary to consider occupational performance because engagement in occupation is meaningful to the individual and the means through which one pursues his/her goals. Occupational analysis, an evaluation technique, identifies where the disturbance in an occupation occurs. The steps include â€Å"observation of the environment, evaluation of how an occupation can promote a sense of purpose and identify one’s values and interests, anticipation of how occupation contributes to goal fulfillment, consideration for the performance skills required to engage in the occupation, and evaluation of the balance of work, play and daily living tasks† (Bruce & Borg, 1993). The application of CBT to treatment for a depressed individual may help restructure volition. According to CBT theorists, faulty, irrational thinking and inaccurate self-perception cause dysfunction. It is assumed that people can control their cognition; therefore, self-regulation of behavior, thoughts, and feelings through the use of logic and deductive reasoning is possible (Cole, 1998). Consequently, it would be necessary to aim treatment of a depressed individual at cognitive restructuring. Beck hypothesizes that dysfunction is caused by â€Å"automatic thoughts, which reflect habitual errors in thinking† (Cole, 1998, p. 131). Depression is thought to be the result of the â€Å"cognitive triad†: self-devaluation, negative view of life experiences and a pessimistic view of the future (Bootzin, 1988). The rationale of Beck’s cognitive therapy is that behavior change comes from cognitive change. Therapy focuses on alteration of negative schema including identification of negative thoughts, evaluation of their validity, formulation of more realistic, positive responses and modification of the dysfunctional attitudes that underlie the negative thoughts. The Socratic method is utilized to allow the individual to discover the irrational beliefs for themselves (Bruce and Borg, 1993).  Specific techniques include development of assertive beliefs, identification of personal rights, thought-stopping, role reversal, and symbolic modeling. By improving one’s performance and thoughts behind behavior, self-produced reinforcement can occur, thus changing beliefs about that behavior (1993). In a longitudinal study of newly injured persons with spinal cord injury (Craig, Hancock, Dickson, & Chang, 1997), levels of depression were compared between groups receiving CBT services in addition to traditional rehabilitation services to those who received no CBT during hospitalization. A psychologist and occupational therapist provided CBT to small groups over a ten-week period. Topics addressed during CBT included anxiety, depression, self-esteem, assertion, sexuality, and family relations. The therapists utilized cognitive restructuring techniques, relaxation, deep-breathing exercises, and visualization. From the follow-up measures of the patients one year post-treatment, the researchers found that the treatment group had greater levels of improvement in depression scores over time in comparison to the controls. It was also found that those with the highest levels of depression before treatment were significantly less depressed one year after treatment. The authors concluded t hat while not every person with spinal cord injury needs CBT, those with high levels of depression may benefit the most from CBT. Application to Occupational Therapy According to MOHO, a person interacts with the environment through engagement in occupation. MOHO and the professions of occupational therapy believe that engagement in occupation mediates change in capacities, beliefs, and occupational roles (Stein & Cutler, 1998). Assessment should include the subsystems, the feedback loop, organization of occupations in life, and the environment. Thorough assessment will assist the OT in developing a picture of occupational function and dysfunction as well as treatment goals (Miller, et al., 1988). MOHO provides a framework for an occupational therapist to find an explanation for occupational function and dysfunction. The OT should apply whichever theories, modalities, and facilitative activities that best meet the treatment goals of the individual, however goals should reflect the  client’s values. A case study by Pizzi (1990) examined the clinical application of MOHO to treatment of an adult with AIDS. The physical, psychosocial, and environmental dysfunctions encountered by persons with HIV and AIDS affect all aspects of a person’s occupational functioning. Therefore, a comprehensive assessment of the subsystems within the human system as well as the environment was required. This assessment allowed for the formulation of a treatment plan that met the complex needs of the client with AIDS. This case study shows how MOHO acts as a framework for a therapist to picture a client holistically when determining function and dysfunction, but does not necessarily prescribe a specific treatment technique. CBT fills the gaps left by MOHO in outlining specific treatment approaches in regards to disturbances in cognition. Mahoney, as cited in Barris, Kielhofner, and Watts (1998), states that when following the CBT frame of reference, â€Å"the resultant task of the therapist is that of a diagnostician-educator who assesses maladaptive cognitive processes and subsequently arranges learning experiences that will alter cognitions and the behavior and affect patterns with which they correlate† (p. 90). An occupational therapist coming from CBT frame of reference should evaluate person-environment match; self-image, goals, and self-acceptance; the client’s view of the environment; learning style and appropriate reinforcements; and environmental expectations and demands to help in the development of treatment goals (Cole, 1998). The goals set in treatment can serve as guidelines for clients to monitor their self-regulation and measure progress (1998). CBT relates to the practice of occupational therapy in that  Ã¢â‚¬Å"cognitive behavioral skills may not be the traditional skills associated with occupational therapy, but they involve basic interpersonal skills, problem-solving skills, and self-management skills. As such, they are often prerequisites to the ability to perform effectively in the roles of player, student or worker† (Johnston, 1987). Johnston outlined how an occupational therapist might use a CBT approach.  Acting as an educator/facilitator, the OT would target skills such as problem solving, communication, and assertiveness. Techniques for treatment include the breakdown of skills into simpler steps, client examination of thoughts and assumptions regarding the skills, teaching of new skills, and practice of the skills (1987). Social learning theory provides a treatment model for occupational therapy. Bandura’s philosophy agrees with the logic of occupational therapy, â€Å"doing facilitates change† (Bruce & Borg, 1993, p. 211). According to Bandura, reinforcement is what motivates learning. OT’s must determine the level of reinforcement and motivation required by each client for effective learning to occur (Cole, 1998). Engagement in activities allows clients to change thoughts of themselves from incapable to capable. By grading these activities, mastery of simple tasks occurs before difficult tasks are attempted. This grading allows the client to develop feelings of competence. These feelings of competence are self-reinforcing, which is in concordance with the highest level of reinforcement identified by Bandura (1998). Yakobina, Yakobina, and Tallant (1997) discussed how an occupational therapist might apply the CBT frame of reference to the treatment process of women with dysthymic disorder. The OT would act as an educator and emphasize the therapeutic use of pleasurable activities during treatment. The therapist would attempt to change negative thought patterns and facilitate the development of problem solving skills necessary to cope with daily activities by engaging in role-playing, group discussions, and homework assignments. In addition to traditional CBT techniques, engagement in occupation would allow the depressed person to test the validity of her negative assumptions. Conclusion As reviewed in this paper, the MOHO and CBT frames of reference both view behavior as the result of the interaction between a person and their  environment. The complex interplay between biological, psychosocial, and environmental factors influences the way people view themselves and the world. Those cognitive processes determine what behaviors a person will engage in, as well as how the consequences are interpreted. Lazarus, as cited in Johnston (1987), explains the interaction between cognition and the environment, â€Å"the way a person moves or behaves can be adversely influenced by emotions, sensations, and the way people behave toward them. Conversely, if a person changes some aspect of his behavior, this change will alter his cognitions, emotions, sensations, and self-image† (p. 73). Together, MOHO and CBT provide a way to understand behavior and how change occurs. MOHO acts as a framework for understanding the interdependent nature of humans and their environment. CBT provides an explanation for the cognitive processes seen by both frames as the commanding structures over behavior, as well as several treatment approaches to induce change in behavior. Applying the two frames of reference when formulating a treatment approach allows the therapist to individualize treatment while considering the multi-faceted nature of humans. Additionally, both frames see the engagement in occupation as an important mediator of change in the treatment process. References Barris, R., Kielhofner, G., & Watts, J. H. (1988). Cognitive approaches to therapy. In G. Kielhofner (Ed.), Bodies of knowledge in psychosocial practice (pp. 89-100). Thorofare, NJ: Slack. Bootzin, R. R., & Acocella, J. R. (1988). Abnormal psychology: Current perspectives (5thed.). New York: Random House. Bruce, M. A. & Borg, B. (1993). Psychosocial occupational therapy: Frames of reference for intervention. Thorofare, NJ: Slack. Craig, A. R., Hancock, K., Dickson, H., & Chang, E. (1997). 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